Reasons for and consequences of separatism within and across national borders free essay sample

Separatism is the wanting or succession of being separate and splitting from a main country, usually because they no longer identify with the main body they are attached/part of. As a result, they feel isolated and excluded from the main body and wish to no longer be a part of it, which can often result in peaceful separation from that body, however it is sometimes very violent and may bring about more negatives than positives. Separatism is often the result of certain needs or reasons that the majority of a population in one area agree with, these reasons include reasons like feeling economically isolated, minorities with different cultures or ethnicities that simply do not belong to the main body, the feeling of being exploited by others, the natural collapse of the state, splitting it into many smaller states. As a result of this, there is many consequences brought about, for example the aim is often succeeded, which is the establishment of clear, separate states or countries, the protection of a language, the growth of political parties, terrorism and civil war. We will write a custom essay sample on Reasons for and consequences of separatism within and across national borders or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The majority of the consequences are positive, however the negative consequences are never felt softly, they are always hard hitting globally, for example the violence that the separatism of Timor caused. Sometimes separatism will be forced upon people who didnt want it as a result of greed(The partition of Bengal) or due to the nature of the time, for example the separating of East Germany and West Germany following world war 2. One of the main reasons of the willingness of separatism is a difference in religion beliefs, as a difference in these beliefs is usually a very strong one and in certain areas of the world there is no limitation of religious oppression, often resulting in people dying as a result of religious oppression. As a result, people are often willing to go very far to support their own religious beliefs, this includes separating from a country in order to avoid differences in beliefs and conflicts. This is very evident in Sudan, which was once the largest country in Africa until it separated in 2011. This is an example of religious conflicts causing separatism as the Christian people were struggling under the rule of the Arab Muslim north and so they felt like independence was needed to separate the Muslim north and the Christian south. The situation in Sudan shows clear consequences of what happens when countrys separate when its related to a sensitive topic, such as religion, and it isnt dealt with properly, as the borders were not made clear in Sudan it has resulted in a lot of violence, and on top of that, the majority of the resources went to the south, showing a very unfair scenario of separatism, but also highlights how sometimes separatism isnt just black and white. That theres a lot to take into account, the resources, the terrain, the population, and if these arent all considered and taken into account, the consequence will more than likely be violence, as evident in Sudan where around 690,000 have been displaced along with many needless deaths. Another example of a cause of separatism is oppression and nationality, the idea of being feeling oppressed and wanting to be separate and free. There is many examples of this in history, the most famous being the US declaration of independence where the US felt oppressed by the English and wanted to be separate and no longer colonised. This is another example of separatism that is often very violent and causes a lot of deaths. An example of this is Timor where Portugal ruled east Timor until 1975, where they withdrew, and almost instantly after the Timorese declared independence, Indonesia invaded and used violence to take over. As a result of this, there was many uprising and revolts, and in 1991 the Indonesian people retaliated by opening fire on a memorial procession, killing around 300. As a result the Indonesians were pressured into allowing an independence referendum. This shows an example of a nationalist-separatist movement where a nation resists annexation from another state who only aims to exploit them, and as a consequence, there was unneeded deaths and violence, but a separate East Timor was established, which was the aim all along. Separatism doesnt always have to be violent or cause violence, and often it doesnt, as the cause of separatism often correlates with the consequences of the separatism, for example a non-violent political dispute for separatism will often result in a peaceful separation. An example of this is Scotland, which also provides to be an example of not only feeling economically feeling isolated from the main body (The U. K) but also provides as an example of a country that feels like it is being exploited with England using the north sea oil and gas reserves, and on top of that, nationalism. The entirety of the push for separatism for Scotland has been peaceful and political, and as a clear consequence of this, there has been no violence, but also there will be a preservation of the native Scottish culture and preservation of its separate education and legal system from the U. K. Essentially, Scotland is already separate from the U. K, except with the other countries using the resources within the Scottish boundary which is why there is an uprising on Scottish nationalism in the first place, along with the fact that being separate will benefit them immensely. In conclusion, while separatism is almost guaranteed to cause conflicts, the expression of this conflict doesnt always necessary have to be violent, it can remain peaceful, and often the expression of wanting separatism being peaceful usually results in peaceful consequences. However it is also fair to say that sometimes the violence is unavoidable, such as places where oppression is high and freedom is low, however it is very easy to say that violence could easily be avoided in places where conflict is the result of things that need not cause violence, such as religion and differences in opinions.

Cinco De Mayo and the Battle of Puebla

Cinco De Mayo and the Battle of Puebla Cinco de Mayo is a Mexican holiday which celebrates the victory over French forces on May 5, 1862,​ at the Battle of Puebla. It is often mistakenly thought to be Mexico’s Independence Day, which is actually September 16. More of an emotional victory than a military one, to Mexicans the Battle of Puebla represents Mexican resolve and bravery in the face of an overwhelming foe. The Reform War The Battle of Puebla was not an isolated incident: there is a long and complicated history that led up to it. In 1857, the â€Å"Reform War† broke out in Mexico. It was a civil war and it pitted Liberals (who believed in separation of church and state and freedom of religion) against the Conservatives (who favored a tight bond between the Roman Catholic Church and the Mexican State). This brutal, bloody war left the nation in shambles and bankrupt. When the war was over in 1861, Mexican President Benito Juarez suspended all payment of foreign debt: Mexico simply did not have any money. Foreign Intervention This angered Great Britain, Spain, and France, countries which were owed a great deal of money. The three nations agreed to work together to force Mexico to pay. The United States, which had considered Latin America its â€Å"backyard† since the Monroe Doctrine (1823), was going through a Civil War of its own and in no position to do anything about European intervention in Mexico. In December 1861 armed forces of the three nations arrived off the coast of Veracruz and landed a month later, in January 1862. Desperate last-minute diplomatic efforts by the Juarez administration persuaded Britain and Spain that a war that would further devastate the Mexican economy was in no one’s interest, and Spanish and British forces left with a  promise of future payment. France, however, was unconvinced and French forces remained on Mexican soil. French March on Mexico City French forces captured the city of Campeche on February 27 and reinforcements from France arrived soon after. By early March, France’s modern military machine had an efficient army in place, poised to capture Mexico City. Under the command of the Count of Lorencez, a veteran of the Crimean War, the French Army set out for Mexico City. When they reached Orizaba, they held up for a while, as many of their troops had become ill. Meanwhile, an army of Mexican regulars under the command of 33-year-old Ignacio Zaragoza marched to meet him. The Mexican Army was about 4,500 men strong: the French numbered approximately 6,000 and were much better armed and equipped than the Mexicans. The Mexicans occupied the city of Puebla and its two forts, Loreto and Guadalupe. French Attack On the morning of May 5, Lorencez moved to attack. He believed that Puebla would fall easily: his incorrect information suggested that the garrison was much smaller than it really was and that the people of Puebla would surrender easily rather than risk much damage to their city. He decided on a direct assault, ordering his men to concentrate on the strongest part of the defense: Guadalupe fortress, which stood on a hill overlooking the city. He believed that once his men had taken the fort and had a clear line to the city, the people of Puebla would be demoralized and would surrender quickly. Attacking the fortress directly would prove a major mistake. Lorencez moved his artillery into position and by noon had begun shelling Mexican defensive positions. He ordered his infantry to attack three times: each time they were repulsed by the Mexicans. The Mexicans were almost overrun by these assaults, but bravely held their lines and defended the forts. By the third attack, the French artillery was running out of shells and therefore the final assault was unsupported by artillery. French Retreat The third wave of French infantry was forced to retreat. It had begun to rain, and the foot troops were moving slowly. With no fear of the French artillery, Zaragoza ordered his cavalry to attack the retreating French troops. What had been an orderly retreat became a rout, and Mexican regulars streamed out of the forts to pursue their foes. Lorencez was forced to move the survivors to a distant position and Zaragoza called his men back to Puebla. At this point in the battle, a young general named  Porfirio Dà ­az  made a name for himself, leading a cavalry attack. â€Å"The National Arms Have Covered Themselves in Glory† It was a sound defeat for the French. Estimates place French casualties around 460 dead with almost that many wounded, while only 83 Mexicans were killed. Lorencez’s  quick retreat prevented the defeat from becoming a disaster, but  still, the battle became a huge morale-booster for the Mexicans. Zaragoza sent a message to Mexico City, famously declaring â€Å"Las  armas  nacionales  se  han  cubierto  de  gloria† or â€Å"The national arms (weapons) have covered themselves in glory.† In Mexico City, President Juarez declared May 5th a national holiday in remembrance of the battle. Aftermath The Battle of Puebla was not very important to Mexico from a military standpoint. Lorencez was allowed to retreat and hold onto the towns he had already captured. Soon after the battle, France sent 27,000 troops to Mexico under a new commander, Elie Frederic Forey. This massive force was well beyond anything the Mexicans could resist, and it swept into Mexico City in June of 1863. On the way, they besieged and captured Puebla. The French installed  Maximilian of Austria, a young Austrian nobleman, as Emperor of Mexico. Maximilian’s reign lasted until  1867 when President Juarez was able to drive the French out and restore the Mexican government. Young General Zaragoza died of typhoid not long after the Battle of Puebla. Although the Battle of Puebla amounted to little from a military sense   it merely postponed the inevitable victory of the French army, which was larger, better trained and better equipped than the Mexicans it nevertheless meant a great deal to Mexico in terms of pride and hope. It showed them that the mighty French war machine was not invulnerable, and that determination and courage were powerful weapons. The victory was a huge boost to  Benito Juarez  and his government. It allowed him to hold onto power at a time when he was in danger of losing it, and it was Juarez who eventually led his people to victory against the French in 1867. The battle also marks the arrival on the political scene of Porfirio Dà ­az, then a brash young general who disobeyed Zaragoza in order to chase down fleeing French troops. Dà ­az would eventually get a lot of the credit for the victory and he used his new fame to run for president against Jurez. Although he lost, he would eventually reach the presidency and  lead his nation for many years.

Sexual Assault on campus Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Sexual Assault on campus - Research Paper Example 2013). The controversy continues on the critical topic because of the overlap that exists between theory and empirical research. There is much theory, but little research has been done on the topic. For instance, there are only a few documented studies on the effects of sexual assault (Exner & Cummings, 2011). The issue has been denied the attention it deserves like other crimes in the campus environment. This paper will be at analyzing the controversy in sexual assault in campus and the different issues related to it. Sexual assault in campuses is a reality with women being the major victims of this vise. There exist studies exploring gender differences when it comes to sexual assault (Wilcox, Jordan & Pritchard, 2006). These studies have shown that women in college are the main victims; however, the effects are worse to males (Exner & Cummings, 2011). When males are sexually assaulted, the outcomes are severe because of the climate in campus where men have been empowered. Therefore, there is a controversy on the widely affected gender and the intensity of outcomes on the different genders. College populations are said to be major victims of sexual assault because they are in the age group that experiences most of the social activities and dating. Through dating and the social activities, students end up being sexually assaulted by people close to them when they fail to satisfy their wants. According to Casey & Nurius (2006), sexual assault peaks at adolescence. This makes sexual assault to be more prevalent in colleges than in the general population. Substance use is also common among college students (Hayes et al. 2013). This further increases the risk of victimization by reducing the ability to ignore or resist unwanted advances. Statistics, on the other hand, show that a sexual assault in campus is at around 25% with women being major victims of this. Scholars like Casey & Nurius (2006) claim that these statistics do not give a real picture of the

Dutch in new york and how they entered the city in the 15th and 16th Research Paper

Dutch in new york and how they entered the city in the 15th and 16th centuries - Research Paper Example New Netherlands was only one of the many Dutch colonies. Amsterdam was the port that sent ships to explore. In the New Netherlands furs, tradeable objects, and fertile land were found. The founding of New Netherlands developed a valuable region into a successful colony. The Dutch West India Company was a trade company in the 1700s.1 The Dutch West India Company was formed in 1631.2 The Dutch West India Company was only one branch of the Dutch company. The Dutch East India Company had great success in the East.3 The East is defined as mainly territories in or around Asia.4 The trade industry was done through shipping lanes in the 1600s.5 Furs, ivory, jade, diamonds, cloth, and spices were just a few items the Dutch West India Company traded.6 While the English, Spanish, and other countries were interested in conquest, the Dutch interest was focused on the trade industry.7 The colonization of an area by the Dutch would be due to trade, not expansion. The Dutch West India Company was interested in the area of New Netherlands due to the opportunity to trade. The Dutch West India Company hired Henry Hudson.8 The expedition of finding new trade routes was Henry Hudson’s assignment.9 â€Å"Sailing for the Dutch in 1609, Henry Hudson explored the river that now bears his name. The Dutch established a string of agricultural settlements between New Amsterdam (New York City) and Fort Orange (Albany, New York) after 1614.†10 Hudson mapped out the Hudson River and Hudson Bay. The Dutch wanted to create a settlement at the mouth of the Hudson River in order to strengthen the fur trade with local Natives. The Dutch became the chief European traders with the Iroquois, supplying them with firearms, blankets, metal tools, and other European trade goods in exchange for furs. The Iroquois used those goods to nearly destroy the Hurons and to push the Algonquins into Illinois and Michigan. As a result, the Iroquois gained

Anthropology and political and power Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Anthropology and political and power - Essay Example Anthropology's basic concerns are "What defines Homo sapiens?", "Who are the ancestors of modern Homo sapiens?", "What are humans' physical traits?", "How do humans behave?", "Why are there variations and differences among different groups of humans?", "How has the evolutionary past of Homo sapiens influenced its social organization and culture?" so it is the study of how humans live and interact. The anthropologist Eric Wolf once described anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences." Politics is a process by which groups of people make collective decisions. The term is generally applied to the art or science of running a government. It also refers to behavior within civil governments. However, politics have been observed in other group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. It consists of "social relations involving authority or power† and refers to the regulation of public affairs within a political unit, and to the methods and tactics used to formulate and apply policy. Anthropology and politics have a direct link between them. POWER IS IMMANENT in human affairs; by definition, human beings are political animals. Power in this sense cannot be reduced to a single social or political instance by either external or internal criteria. Whether or not the social grouping under scrutiny is collectively aggregated by conditions of gender, age, kinship, class, or hierarchy, power is present. In the most basic sense, power is what the political scientist Harold Lasswell defined as political: who gets what and how. Or, as the anthropologist Edmund Leach provocatively noted, all social and cultural change is a quest for power. Power is not a domain but one of the essential forms and conditions of human relations. Three phases may be recognized in anthropology’s relationship with politics. In the first formative era (1879–1939) anthropologists studied politics almos t incidentally to their other interests, and we can speak only of ‘the anthropology of politics’. In the second phase (1940–66) political anthropology developed a body of systematically-structured knowledge and a self-conscious discourse. The third phase began in the mid-1960s when all such disciplinary specialization came under severe challenge. As new paradigms challenged the earlier dominating, coercive systems of knowledge, political anthropology was first de-centered and then deconstructed. The political turn taken by geography, social history, and literary criticism and, above all, feminism has revitalized anthropology’s concern with power and powerlessness. FEW subjects arouse more passion and debate among Muslims today than the encounter between Islam and modern thought. The subject is of course vast and embraces fields ranging from politics to sacred art, subjects whose debate often causes volcanic eruptions of emotions and passions which hardly l ead to an objective scrutiny of causes and a clear vision of the problems involved. Nor is this debate which consumes so much of the energies of Muslims and students of Islam helped by the lack of clear definition of the terms of the debate and an insight into the actual forces involved. The whole discussion is also paralyzed by a psychological sense of inferiority and a sense of enfeeblement before the modern world which prevents most modernized Muslims from making a critical appraisal of the situation and of stating the truth irrespective of

Intersections Of Race And Gender Sociology Essay

Intersections Of Race And Gender Sociology Essay Gender identity originates from the experiences of our lives and these experiences differ not only based on gender but also by other factors such as race and class. These identities are formed under the narrow structures of stereotypes, which are created as a system of social control (Andersen 311). The interactions between race and gender create stereotypes about men and women. An analysis in Sociology: Understanding a Diverse Society by Margaret L. Andersen and Howard F. Taylor and Jacquelynne S. Eccles article Gender Role Stereotypes, Expectancy Effects, and Parents Socialization of Gender Differences reveals that gender intersects with race, thus proving that manhood and womanhood emerge due to systems of prejudice and discrimination that are inextricably intertwined with race, class, and gender. Gender is part of our social structure, just as race and class are. When applied to Camara Phyllis Jones article, The Gardeners Tale, men are the red flowers and women are the pink. From the moment of birth, men and women are put into different pots. These pots symbolize socialization because the separation affects the course that a man or womans life will take. However, institutionalized sexism causes the options to be distinct. Jacquelynne Eccles of the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan suggests that parents are role models. Actions as simple as giving a toy truck to a little boy and a Barbie to a little girl can help develop a childs gender identity. If a child grows up with a mother who is very athletic, she is more likely to view sports as a normal part of being a girl. The same idea can apply to a boy; if he sees his dad treating his mom kindly, he is less likely to abuse his own wife. Personally mediated sexism revolves around the concept of omission. This can be seen when men are given power, prestige and economic resources for they are believed to become the next world leaders, doctors, businessmen, engineers, and scientists (Andersen 315). Women grow up wearing frilly pink dresses and are taught to be gentle and remain at home. They are excluded or discouraged from entering certain schools or career paths because they are expected to not have the capacity to exceed in certain fields. Lastly, there is internalized sexism, which can be seen in early adolescence. This once again reintegrates Eccles statement of how parents play a critical role in influencing their childrens social self-perceptions, interests, and skill acquisition (Eccles 184). Early adolescence is when people begin noticing the existence of gender differences and believing in them. Young women, generally, view themselves as having a lower math ability in comparison to young men. They go on to express less interestà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦in studying mathematics and in en tering math-related professions (Eccles 184). Females do believe that they are more competent in English that their male counterparts and males believe their athletic competence is greater than a females (Eccles 184). Gender inequality does not exist in its own sphere. It coincides with race and class inequality. As M.P.P Root questions, is it possible to separate the gendered experiences from the racial existence (Root 162)? Latinas and African American women are discriminated by both race and gender and even possibly by class. White men, usually, are given more power; however, this does not apply to Latino men. Tim Wise, a White man, explains that he had experienced this unearned privilege. Growing up, he was given the benefit of the doubt if he did not succeed. African American men felt a weight on their shoulders for if they did not succeed, then they would be proving the stereotype, African Americans are inferior to Whites, true. Gender identity incorporates racial identity. Females are taught from a young age to have characteristics of femininity that include a nurturing yet confident personality. They should seek higher education and a career. However, African American women, compared to White women, have a greater likelihood of declaring their independence. This aspiration may come from the fact that their mothers were often career orientated women who relied on themselves. Males are also affected by their racial identity. Latino men are almost expected to embody the stereotype of machismo, exaggerated masculinity which is associated with sexist actions and honor, dignity, and respect (Andersen 313). Despite the existence of such behaviors, the relationship between Latino men and women is multidimensional (Andersen 313). These families are egalitarian so the decisions are made by both the men and the women. African American men are also subjected to certain associations such as accountability to family a nd self-determination (Andersen 313). As they mature, they in turn put a greater stress on themselves to be the breadwinner. People acknowledge that race includes systems of privilege and inequality, yet they do not realize that gender is also controlled by the same systems. Women are generally at a disadvantage when compared to men in aspects such as access to economic and political resources (Andersen 315). Women are denied an opportunity for achievement, influence, and independence. Gendered institutions are the cause of the different experiences of men and women. In a career that is dominated by men, women are treated like outsiders and seen as tokens (Andersen 314). Men, on the contrary, continue to rise to a higher position because they are viewed as more important and the career advancement may simply come from connecting and spending more time with their superiors. Women are not given these opportunities to spend time with their superiors whether it be inside or outside work. The income of an employed woman is less than that of an employed man. However, when analyzed among Hispanics and African Ame ricans, the womans income is approximately the same as the mans. Furthermore, gendered institutions build toward gender roles, which can be defined as learned patterns of behavior associated with being a man or a woman (Andersen 314). Nonetheless, in recent years, there has been a shifting of gender roles. Women are no longer presumed to be the keepers of the house and do womens work and men are working as nurses and primary school teachers and they celebrate a womans accomplishments instead of expecting it to diminish their own. These advancements and the crossing of gender boundaries also bring about drawbacks such as the questioning of ones true gender identity (Andersen 321). The roles that both men and women fall into are not random but rather are conditioned by the social context of their experiences (Andersen 313). Experiences are affirmed by race, class, and gender standing. Each exhibits different effects, depending on a persons location in the interconnection of gender, race, and class relations (Andersen 323). Males and females identify with certain gender expectations. This involves the issue of conformity. Males take risks that can lead to greater violence and all because of the cultural definition of masculinity (Andersen 311). However, it is both gender and race that further emphasize stereotypes. African American men are stigmatized as being hyper masculine and oversexed while Latinos are macho (Andersen 312). Jews, on the other hand, are viewed as being simply intellectual but asexual (Andersen 312). Woman, similarly, conform to their environment and the stereotypes of their race. As David R. Williams and Chiquita Collins state in their artic le, Racial Segregation: A Fundamental Cause of Racial Disparities in Health, it is from this segregation that African Americans lose employment access and thus income. It is no surprise that this social inequality develops into the stereotype of African American women being welfare queens (Andersen 312). Residential segregation also introduces class. Even the White race has its own distinct boundaries. Working-class white women are perceived as slutty, while those of the over-class are frigid and cold (Andersen 312). Experiences of race and gender socialization do interact with one another to create todays societal norms. To be truly able to comprehend the different stratifications among men and women begins with considering how gender structures social experiences. Race, gender, and class are all nuances that affect a persons life. Sometimes, either race, gender, or class may be the primary identity, but together each places a mark on the experiences of a person. This is why I have come to conclude that though race, gender, and class are different, they are interrelated dimensions in our social structure (Andersen 323).

Constitutional Framers Essay -- American History, Washington D.C.

The Constitutional Framers envisioned a national government that, like Plato’s cave, would be â€Å"at a distance and out of sight† of the everyday affairs and thoughts of ordinary Americans. They had envisioned Washington D.C. to be a cultural mecca on par with the capitals of European nations, both economically and socially. The reality of the Washington Community was a disaster compared to the lofty ambitions of the founding fathers; a desolate purgatory to be endured. The socially and economically barren capital combined Spartan living conditions with isolation. High turnover was prevalent in both the house and senate; a disappointment to the Federalists who had hoped for institutional memory within congress. Instead of creating the new form of â€Å"national† and â€Å"long term† thinking by men of prominence, congressmen turned to fellow members of boarding houses for a sense of legitimacy and guidance. Boarding houses were organized along regi onal lines and served to enforce differences between geographical communities; the isolation the founders had hoped would lead to a unique national identity inadvertently strengthened regional ties. The Framers had to isolate the Washington community; removing congressmen from the outside influence of state politics would protect against corruption. â€Å"From this time until the objective was realized, it was never seriously disputed that the government ought to have a home and to wield sole authority over the environs; and when Congress at last reached its permanent abode in Washington, that body showed how dearly it prized its freedom from local interference by refusing the District’s citizenry the right of formal participation in not only national but also state government† (Young, p.96).... ...ir extra official life their constitutional separation in official life† (Young, p. 120). In the early Washington community, the framers achieved isolation but this did not produce the anticipated result of national mind set and body of thought. Rather than elevating the nation’s leaders to a place of prominence, the Washington Community provided no sense of legitimacy. Barbaric conditions and isolation reinforced regional ties; congressmen generally endured a single term before returning to the prestigious and considerably more comfortable job of state politics. Rather than motived by legacy, congressional terms seemed a hardship everyone was eventually forced endure at some point in their political career. The Constitutional Framers succeeded in some aspects but their vision was circumvented by the wasteland which served as the new nation’s capital.

Botulism & hospitalization

Microbial intoxication refers to the diseases followed by ingestion of toxins produced by pathogens outside the body. Botulism is a water-borne and food-borne disease transmitted in foods (Englelkirk & Duebn-Engelkirk, 2007). Patients with botulism are required to prolonged hospitalization and intensive care (Evans & Brachman, 1998). Although this disease is rare, both animals and humans can be affected which can cause flaccid muscle weakness o even death (Lewis, Knight, Lewis, & Lewis, 1995). In the early human history, it was speculated that our prehistoric ancestors suffered also from botulism.They usually preserved extra meat by wrapping it animal skins and animal organs then smoked it and buried underneath the ground which served as a basic refrigerator, allowing the meat to freeze (Rosaler, 2003). The history if first botulism outbreak happened on 1793 in Wildbad, Germany from consumption of a favorite local dish—blood sausages (Fig. 1). The blood sausages were prepared from washing out the pig intestines, then blood and various spices are stuffed in. Both ends are tied, boiled in water, smoked, and stored for weeks at room temperature.Usually, the people who ate it did not have effect but after people share it they became sick. Most of them vomited, some partially paralyzed, and speech thickened. Later, there were six people dead. Justinus Kerner, the local medical officer and physician, was sent to find out the cause of the incident. However, Kerner was not able to identify the cause of deaths from eating blood sausages. Nevertheless, he was able to note significant observations such as blood sausages with air pockets did not become poisonous and the sausages in large casings are likely to be poisonous.He conducted a dangerous experiment by injecting the sausage fluid, wurstgift, into his own body (Rosaler, 2003). Until then, he was able to observe the symptoms similar to the patients. The disease was named â€Å"Kerner’s disease† f or many years. He conducted follow up experiments on various cases food poisoning and published his findings. Aside from food-borne and water-borne, botulism can also be wound botulism when toxins are produced from the wound that is infected with the bacteria Clostridium botulinum (Fig. 2).The bacteria is a gram positive spore-forming bacilli that is invasive and toxin mediated (Shimeld, 1999). This rod-shaped bacteria is often found in soil where there is low-oxygen forming spores that allow it to survive in dormant state. People infected with botulism usually have the symptoms of blurred vision, difficulty in swallowing, and muscle weakness; while infants with botulism appear lethargic, constipated, weak cry and muscle tone which are all signs of muscle paralysis that is caused by the bacterial toxin. The paralysis can progress in the arms, legs, and respiratory muscles if untreated.On the other hand, in food botulism, symptoms appear as early after six hours to thirty-six hours a nd the latest is ten hours (Bullock, Haddow, & Coppola, 2006). In general there are seven forms of botulism coded as types A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. These forms are grouped if they are proteoluytic. In Group I is proteolytic which includes types A, B, or F toxins. Group II is non-proteolytic which includes types B, E, or F toxins. Group III is also non-proteolytic which includes types C or D toxins. Lastly, the Groupd IV is also non-proteolytic and non-saccharolytic including G toxin.Among the four groups, Groups I and II cause botulism in humans while Group III causes botulism in birds and animals. Group IV, on the other hand, are very rare and does not affect humans. Proteolytic strains normally live in minima temperatures of growth which is 12 °C or above, while the non-proteolytic can live to a temperature as low as 3. 3 °C (Wilkinson & Gould, 1996). Figure 2 Clostridium botulinum. The pale bodies are the spores (Sebaiha et al. 2007) C. botulinum lives as dormant spore or a s cavenger in decaying animal materials in soil but it has no specific mechanism to evade human defenses.The variants of each single species are connected because of the deadly toxin. For example, some of the genes found in C. botulinum are not found in other sequence. It can be easily destroyed by a toxin in some cases. However, the toxins never stop poisoning killing its preys. It has the ability to hide and hibernate through dormant spores when environment is harsh. This bacteria uses many strategies to increase its probability of survival (Sebaiha, Peck, Minton, & Thomson, 2007). In diagnosing botulism, patient’s history and physical examination is taken into consideration but these are not enough to identify botulism.Diseases such as Guillain-Barre syndrome, stroke, and myasthenia gravis appear to be similar with botulism. Tests such as brain scan, spinal fluid examination, electromyography, or Tensilon test for myasthenia gravis are conducted in order to diagnose which di sease. Another way of diagnosis is by injecting placing botulinum toxin to the patient’ serum or stool, then injecting it to a mice and observe for relevant symptoms; while other test of stool can be conducted by some state health department laboratories and at CDC (Bullock et al. , 2006).Otherwise, the patients should undergo passive immunization which has horse serum with anti-A, B, and E toxins. There is also trivalent antitoxin available in CDC, Atlanta and botulism toxoid (Evans & Brachman, 1998). Cases of botulism vary depending on the types of botulism toxin. If there is respiratory failure and paralysis, the patient needs to be in ventilator for weeks and intensive medical care and the paralysis will improve. Respiratory failure can cause death but there is an antitoxin which can block the reaction of toxins on food-borne and wound botulism.The source on the wound, however, should be removed surgically. The recovery can take weeks nevertheless the progress of the dise ase will be prevented. Moreover, the death cases of botulism from the past fifty years decreased from 50% to 8%. Among those who survived poisoning, patients may experience fatigue and shortness of breathe that could last for years thus therapy is required (Bullock et al. , 2006). There are ways to prevent botulism. The source of most food-borne botulism is home-canned goods.Other sources can be from chopped garlic in oil, chili peppers, tomatoes, aluminum foil-wrapped potatoes (improperly cooked), and home canned/fermented fish. Hygienic procedures are necessary in order to prevent contamination especially in home canning and that oils with herbs and garlic should be refrigerated; baked potatoes wrapped in aluminum foil should be kept hot before serving or refrigerated; home-canned goods should be boiled before eating sine the botulism toxin will destroyed in high temperatures, and children below one year should not be fed with honey since Clostridium botulinum spores are present i n honey.There are public education about botulism prevention and there are also experts on botulism available for consultancy in state health departments and CD (Bullock et al. , 2006). In the United States, the average botulism case is 110 every year were majority of these cases are infant botulism (72%). It is followed by followed by food-borne which is 25% and the rest are wound botulism. Outbreaks are usually caused by eating contaminated home-canned goods (Bullock et al. , 2006). Botulism outbreaks, on the other hand, are rare in tropical regions.Most occurred in temperate and colder regions during spring and winter seasons in the northern hemisphere such as Alaska, Canada, United States, Poland, United kingdom, Russia, Iran, and China (Doyle, Steinhart, & Cochrane, 1994). The largest botulism outbreak in the United States in the last 25 years caused 30 cases where four were in severe conditions. The cause was from a potato-based dip that were wrapped in aluminum foil and store d in ambient temperature (Fratarnico, Bhunia, & Smith, 2005). References Bullock, J. A. , Haddow, G. D. , & Coppola, D.P. (2006). Introduction to Homeland Security. Retrieved 31 May 2008, from http://books. google. com/books? id=yHpkkc3ZqlMC Doyle, M. e. , Steinhart, C. E. , & Cochrane, B. A. (1994). Food Safety 1994. Retrieved 31 May 2008, from http://books. google. com/books? id=S28jeel2VfUC Englelkirk, P. G. , & Duebn-Engelkirk, J. (2007). Laboratory Analysis of Infectious Diseases. Retrieved 31 May 2008, from http://books. google. com/books? id=RfjRLEVax1QC Evans, A. S. , & Brachman, P. S. (1998). Bacterial Infections of Human: Epidemiology and Control.Retrieved 31 may 2008, from http://books. google. com/books? id=xADJBP7iqRwC Fratarnico, P. M. , Bhunia, A. K. , & Smith, J. L. (2005). Foodborne Pathogens: Microbiology and Molecular Biology. Retrieved 31 May 2008, from http://books. google. com/books? id=-HNavPPs-JoC Lewis, L. D. , Knight, A. , Lewis, B. , & Lewis, C. (1995). Eq uine Clinical Nutrition: Feeding and Care. Retrieved 31 May 2008, from http://books. google. com/books? id=vpuTp_vwsegC Rosaler, M. (2003). Botulism. Retrieved 31 may 2008, from http://books. google.com/books? id=7srrKGDkswkC Sebaiha, M. , Peck, M. W. , Minton, N. P. , & Thomson, N. R. (2007). Genome sequence of a proteolytic (Group I) Clostridium botulinum strain Hall A and comparative analysis of the clostridial genomes. Genome Research. Shimeld, L. A. (1999). Essentials of Diagnostic Microbiology. Retrieved 31 May 2008, from http://books. google. com/books? id=8Rn47SNdbYAC Wilkinson, V. M. , & Gould, G. W. (1996). Food Irradiation: A Reference Guide. Retrieved 31 May 2008, from http://books. google. com/books? id=FpIpsqs7CRUC

The Legacy Of The Medici Family Essays

The Legacy Of The Medici Family Essays The Legacy Of The Medici Family Paper The Legacy Of The Medici Family Paper bbc. co. uk/dna/h2g2/A622919 (accessed November 26, 2007). Medici: Godfather of the Renaissance. pbs. org/empires/medici/renaissance/index. html (accessed November 26, 2007). Nygaard Ken. â€Å"Giovanni di Bicci Averardo de Medici. † historyworld. net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories. asp? historyid=aa24 (accessed November 25, 2007). The Medici Queens. saburchill. com/history/biblio/020. html (accessed November 26, 2007).

How to Determine the Mass of a Star

How to Determine the Mass of a Star Nearly everything in the universe has mass, from atoms and sub-atomic particles (such as those studied by the Large Hadron Collider) to giant clusters of galaxies.  The only things scientists know about so far that dont have mass are photons and gluons.   Mass is important to know, but objects in the sky are too distant. We cant touch them and we certainly cant weigh them through conventional means. So, how do astronomers determine the mass of things in the cosmos? Its complicated.   Stars and Mass Assume that a  typical star  is pretty massive, generally much more so than a typical planet. Why care about its mass? That information is important to know because  it reveals clues about a stars evolutionary past, present, and future. Astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope identified nine monster stars with masses more than 100 times the Suns mass. They lie in the star cluster R136 in the nearby Large Magellanic Cloud. Mass is an important characteristic when figuring out the life spans of stars. NASA/ESA/STScI Astronomers can use several indirect methods to determine stellar mass. One method, called  gravitational lensing, measures the path of light that is bent by the gravitational pull of a nearby object. Although the amount of bending is small, careful measurements can reveal the mass of the gravitational pull of the object doing the tugging. Typical Star Mass Measurements It took astronomers until the 21st century to apply gravitational lensing to measuring stellar masses. Before that, they had to rely on measurements of stars orbiting a common center of mass, so-called binary stars. The mass of  binary stars (two stars orbiting a common center of gravity) is pretty easy for astronomers to measure. In fact, multiple star systems provide a textbook example of how to figure out their masses. Its a bit technical but worth studying to understand what astronomers have to do. A Hubble Space Telescope image of Sirius A and B, a binary system 8.6 light-years away from Earth. NASA/ESA/STScI First, they measure the orbits of all the stars in the system. They also clock the stars orbital speeds and then determine how long it takes a given star to go through one orbit. Thats called its orbital period.   Calculating Mass Once all that information is known, astronomers next do some calculations to determine the masses of the stars. They can use the equation Vorbit SQRT(GM/R) where SQRT is square root a, G is gravity, M is mass, and R is the radius of the object. Its a matter of algebra to tease out the mass by rearranging the equation to solve for M.   So, without ever touching a star, astronomers use mathematics and known physical laws to figure out its mass. However, they cant do this for every star. Other measurements help them figure out the masses for stars ​not in binary or multiple-star systems. For example, they can use luminosities and temperatures. Stars of different luminosities and temperatures have vastly different masses. That information, when plotted on a graph, shows that stars can be arranged by temperature and luminosity. Really massive stars are among the hottest ones in the universe. Lesser-mass stars, such as the Sun, are cooler than their gigantic siblings. The graph of star temperatures, colors, and brightnesses is called the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram, and by definition, it also shows a stars mass, depending on where it lies on the chart. If it lies along a long, sinuous curve called the Main Sequence, then astronomers know that its mass will not be gigantic nor will it be small. The largest mass and smallest-mass stars fall outside the Main Sequence. This version of the Hertzprung-Russell diagram plots the temperatures of stars against their luminosities. The position of a star in the diagram provides information about what stage it is in, as well as its mass and brightness. European Southern Observatory Stellar Evolution Astronomers have a good handle on how stars are born, live, and die. This sequence of life and death is called stellar evolution. The biggest predictor of how a star will evolve is the mass its born with, its initial mass. Low-mass stars are generally cooler and dimmer than their higher-mass counterparts. So, simply by looking at a stars color, temperature, and where it lives in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, astronomers can get a good idea of a stars mass. Comparisons of similar stars of known mass (such as the binaries mentioned above) give astronomers a good idea of how massive a given star is, even if it isnt a binary. Of course, stars dont keep the same mass all their lives. They lose it as they age. They gradually consume their nuclear fuel, and eventually, experience huge episodes of mass loss at the ends of their lives. If theyre stars like the Sun, they blow it off gently and form planetary nebulae (usually). If theyre much more massive than the Sun, they die in supernova events, where the cores collapse and then expand outward in a catastrophic explosion. That blasts much of their material to space. Composite image of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant that heralded the death of a very massive star. NASA/ESA/ASU/J. Hester A. Loll By observing the types of stars that die like the Sun or die in supernovae, astronomers can deduce what other stars will do. They know their masses, they know how other stars with similar masses evolve and die, and so they can make some pretty good predictions, based on observations of color, temperature, and other aspects that help them understand their masses. Theres much more to observing the stars than gathering data. The information astronomers get is folded into very accurate models that help them predict just exactly what stars in the Milky Way and throughout the universe will do as they are born, age, and die, all based on their masses. In the end, that information also helps people understand more about stars, particularly our Sun. Fast Facts The mass of a star is an important predictor for many other characteristics, including how long it will live.Astronomers use indirect methods to determine the masses of stars since they cant directly touch them.Typically speaking, more massive stars live shorter lifetimes than the less massive ones. This is because they consume their nuclear fuel much faster.Stars like our Sun are intermediate-mass and will end in a much different way than massive stars that will blow themselves up after a few tens of millions of years.

Business law case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business law - Case Study Example Imperial could find itself with a sudden, severe decrease in its cash flow. It might also have to layoff employees and have equipment sit idle. Simply put, litigation, regardless of the outcome could do irreparable damage to both parties. In this case negotiation would be the appropriate form of alternative dispute resolution to pursue. The two parties need to sit down face-to-face. They need to lay out there understanding of the ambiguous clause in the contract, seek common ground, and perhaps by consent share any costs or losses involved in their differing interpretations of the clause. If negotiation proves fruitless they should move to mediation. Then an objective and disinterested third party could assist them in understanding one anothers position and finding a middle ground. (Marsh, 2008) Due to the complexity of the case collaborative law would be the best approach. The case, too complex for a jury, might also be too complex for a mediator or arbitrator, regardless of their qualifications and experience. Therefore, the parties would be wise to sit down together, with their lawyers accompanying them, and work towards an agreement in camera with trained lawyers, able to understand the complexity of the case. If they were to negotiate in good faith, in this private environment with expert legal advice they stand the best chance of resolving the dispute in a fair manner that also takes account of the legal complexities of the situation. Collaborative law would also ensure that the case never ended up in court. Collaborative law is â€Å"cost effective and discrete†, and with trade secrets involved that is precisely what each party needs. (Newitt, â€Å"Shot before dawn†) It is an unusual proposal for a business dispute, but most appropriate in this instance. In this case it is plain that Empire Corporation wishes to avoid a court case There is the danger of disadvantageous precedent being set if the case does go to trial. Also, the company may find

Resourcing Talent - R-PartB Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Resourcing Talent - R-PartB - Assignment Example Diversity in an organization enables the organization to have the base of its employees made up of different people bringing together divergent views and ideas. The divergent workforce includes various generations of workforce including generation X, Generation Y and Baby Boomers. Generation X is attracted into the organization through creating a conducive environment that enables them to develop more on their skills and also learn. They are also lured by job positions that provide for independence, proper communication ad for individual potential improvement. Generation Y gives much weight to the benefits of the job as opposed to the salary and can be attracted via by upgrading the organizations offices with the modern and ergo-friendly furniture which would make the generation feel to be working in a healthy environment. Increases creativity as the employees come with a variety of remedies to help the organization soar to greater heights. The more the diverse ideas in an organization the higher the chances of solving a problem in the best way as everyone will be brainstorming to produce his/her best. Divergent language skills. An organization with employees from the different backgrounds enjoys a wider market due to the competency in communication using the various languages. This increases the geographical market coverage of the organization to as far as being a global market. Increases productivity as the employees will offer technical advice to the employer on how to best serve the clients using the newly introduced ideas .Diversity increases the employee’s morale boosting their efficiency. Diversity helps in building on the image of the organization as it indicates that the organization is not discriminatory in offering job opportunities enabling such firms to attract more employees with new talents as they retain the already existing ones. To achieve diversity in the attraction of senior managers, high potential